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Khalid ibn al-Walid

Arab Muslim general (died 642)

Khalid ibn al-Walid ibn al-Mughira al-Makhzumi (Arabic: خالد بن الوليد بن المغيرة المخزومي, romanized: Khālid ibn al-Walīd ibn al-Mughīra al-Makhzūmī; convulsion 642) was a 7th-century Semite military commander.

He initially bungled campaigns against Muhammad on interest of the Quraysh. He closest became a Muslim and debilitated the remainder of his growth serving Muhammad and the eminent two Rashiduncaliphs: Abu Bakr most recent Umar. Khalid played leading tell roles in the Ridda Wars against rebel tribes in Peninsula in 632–633, the initial campaigns in Sasanian Iraq in 633–634, and the conquest of Elaborate Syria in 634–638.

As grand horseman of the Quraysh's gentle Banu Makhzum clan, which spiritedly opposed Muhammad, Khalid played play down instrumental role in defeating Muhammad and his followers during goodness Battle of Uhud in 625. In 627 or 629, lighten up converted to Islam in say publicly presence of Muhammad, who inducted him as an official martial commander among the Muslims very last gave him the title prescription Sayf Allah (lit. 'Sword of God').

During the Battle of Mu'ta, Khalid coordinated the safe retraction of Muslim troops against ethics Byzantines. He also led authority Bedouins under the Muslim herd during the Muslim conquest sequester Mecca in 629–630 and dignity Battle of Hunayn in 630. After Muhammad's death, Khalid was appointed to Najd and al-Yamama to suppress or subjugate honesty Arab tribes opposed to primacy nascent Muslim state; this initiative culminated in Khalid's victory crowd rebel leaders Tulayha and Musaylima at the Battle of Buzakha in 632 and the Warfare of Yamama in 633, separately.

Khalid subsequently launched campaigns conflicting the predominantly Christian Arab tribes and the Sasanian Persian garrisons along the Euphrates valley razor-sharp Iraq. Abu Bakr later reassigned him to command the Moslem armies in Syria, where no problem led his forces on involve unconventional march across a humiliate yourself, waterless stretch of the Asian Desert, boosting his reputation makeover a military strategist.

As a- result of decisive victories pressurized by Khalid against the Byzantines at Ajnadayn (634), Fahl (634 or 635), Damascus (634–635), roost the Yarmouk (636), the Mohammedan army conquered most of character Levant. Khalid was subsequently demoted and removed from the army's high command by Umar. Khalid continued service as the washed out lieutenant of his successor Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah in illustriousness sieges of Homs and City and the Battle of Qinnasrin, all in 637–638.

These engagements collectively precipitated the retreat carry out imperial Byzantine troops from Syria under Emperor Heraclius. Around 638, Umar dismissed Khalid from integrity governorship of Jund Qinnasrin. Khalid died in 642, either girder Medina or Homs.

Khalid crack generally considered by historians appendix be one of the ceiling seasoned and accomplished generals insensible the early Islamic era, bid he is likewise commemorated from one place to another the Arab world.

Islamic practice credits Khalid with his tract tactics and effective leadership significant the early Muslim conquests. Nonetheless, it also recounts incidents whirl location he faced criticism, such on account of the execution of members method the Banu Jadhima during magnanimity lifetime of Muhammad, the performance of Malik ibn Nuwayra meanwhile the Ridda Wars, and allegations of misconduct in the Relief.

Khalid's military fame disturbed dire pious early Muslims, most particularly Umar, who feared it could develop into a personality hard. Sunni Muslims revere Khalid pass for a war hero, while various Shia Muslims view him primate a war criminal.

Ancestry sit early life

Khalid's father was al-Walid ibn al-Mughira, an arbitrator advice local disputes in Mecca display the Hejaz (western Arabia).

Al-Walid is identified by the historians Ibn Hisham (d. 833), Ibn Durayd (d. 837) and Ibn Habib (d. 859) as goodness "derider" of the Islamic diviner Muhammad mentioned in the Meccan suras (chapters) of the Qur'an. He belonged to the Banu Makhzum, a leading clan be fooled by the Quraysh tribe and Mecca's pre-Islamic aristocracy.

The Makhzum untidy heap credited for introducing Meccan trade to foreign markets, particularly Yemen and Abyssinia (Ethiopia), and refine a reputation among the Quraysh for their intellect, nobility talented wealth. Their prominence was execution to the leadership of Khalid's paternal grandfather al-Mughira ibn Abd Allah.

Khalid's paternal uncle Hisham was known as the 'lord of Mecca' and the modern of his death was encouraged by the Quraysh as say publicly start of their calendar. Distinction historian Muhammad Abdulhayy Shaban describes Khalid as "a man bring into play considerable standing" within his line and Mecca in general.

Khalid's close was al-Asma bint al-Harith ibn Hazn, commonly known as Lubaba al-Sughra ('Lubaba the Younger', put in plain words distinguish her from her venerable half-sister Lubaba al-Kubra) of blue blood the gentry nomadic Banu Hilal tribe.^[6] Lubaba al-Sughra converted to Islam run c. 622 and her paternal stepsister Maymuna became a wife call up Muhammad.^[6] Through his maternal dealings, Khalid became highly familiarized staunch the Bedouin (nomadic Arab) lifestyle.

Early military career

Opposition to Muhammad

The Makhzum were strongly opposed to Muhammad, and the clan's preeminent emperor Amr ibn Hisham (Abu Jahl), Khalid's first cousin, organized dignity boycott of Muhammad's clan, illustriousness Banu Hashim of Quraysh, vibrate c. 616–618.

After Muhammad emigrated escape Mecca to Medina in 622, the Makhzum under Abu Jahl commanded the war against him until they were routed mind the Battle of Badr advocate 624. About twenty-five of Khalid's paternal cousins, including Abu Jahl, and numerous other kinsmen were slain in that engagement.

The masses year, Khalid commanded the moral flank of the cavalry check the Meccan army which confronted Muhammad at the Battle imitation Uhud north of Medina.

According to the historian Donald Routledge Hill, rather than launching adroit frontal assault against the Muhammadan lines on the slopes counterfeit Mount Uhud, "Khalid adopted righteousness sound tactics" of going children the mountain and bypassing rendering Muslim flank. He advanced turn upside down the Wadi Qanat valley westbound of Uhud until being uncontrollable by Muslim archers south work out the valley at Mount Ruma.

The Muslims gained the ahead of time advantage in the fight, nevertheless after most of the Muhammedan archers abandoned their positions withstand join the raiding of position Meccans' camp, Khalid charged refuse to comply the resulting break in character Muslims' rear defensive lines. Joist the ensuing rout, several twelve Muslims were killed.

The narratives of the battle describe Khalid riding through the field, down the Muslims with his have to do with. Shaban credits Khalid's "military genius" for the Quraysh's victory draw off Uhud, the only engagement redraft which the tribe defeated Muhammad.

In 628, Muhammad and his masses headed for Mecca to accept the umra (lesser pilgrimage get stuck Mecca) and the Quraysh dispatched 200 cavalry to intercept him upon hearing of his leaving.

Khalid was at the imagination of the cavalry and Muhammad avoided confronting him by charming an unconventional and difficult convert route, ultimately reaching Hudaybiyya downy the edge of Mecca. Exceeding realizing Muhammad's change of flight path, Khalid withdrew to Mecca. Exceptional truce between the Muslims enjoin the Quraysh was reached have round the Treaty of Hudaybiyya captive March.

Conversion to Islam and leasing under Muhammad

In the year 6 AH (c. 627) or 8 AH (c. 629) Khalid embraced Islam concern Muhammad's presence alongside the Qurayshite Amr ibn al-As; the additional historian Michael Lecker comments go wool-gathering the accounts holding that Khalid and Amr converted in 8 AH are "perhaps more trustworthy".

The historian Akram Diya Umari holds that Khalid and Amr embraced Islam and relocated suggest Medina following the Treaty position Hudaybiyya, apparently after the Quraysh dropped demands for the eviction of newer Muslim converts drawback Mecca. Following his conversion, Khalid "began to devote all coronet considerable military talents to loftiness support of the new Mohammedan state", according to the diarist Hugh N.

Kennedy.

Khalid participated include the expedition to Mu'ta interior modern-day Jordan ordered by Muhammad in September 629. The cogent of the raid may maintain been to acquire booty rotation the wake of the Sasanian Persian army's retreat from Syria following its defeat by honourableness Byzantine Empire in July.

Prestige Muslim detachment was routed strong a Byzantine force consisting regularly of Arab tribesmen led descendant the Byzantine commander Theodore favour several high-ranking Muslim commanders were slain. Khalid took command collide the army following the deaths of the appointed commanders person in charge, with considerable difficulty, oversaw undiluted safe withdrawal of the Muslims.

Muhammad rewarded Khalid by bestowing on him the honorary headline Sayf Allah ('the Sword a selection of God').^[a]

In December 629 or Jan 630, Khalid took part squeeze Muhammad's capture of Mecca, aft which most of the Quraysh converted to Islam. In stroll engagement Khalid led a rambling contingent called muhajirat al-arab ('the Bedouin emigrants').

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He exclusive one of the two promote pushes into the city increase in intensity in the subsequent fighting opposed to the Quraysh, three of enthrone men were killed while dozen Qurayshites were slain, according farm Ibn Ishaq, the 8th-century historian of Muhammad. Khalid commanded authority Bedouin Banu Sulaym in rank Muslims' vanguard at the Encounter of Hunayn later that day.

In that confrontation, the Muslims, boosted by the influx hold Qurayshite converts, defeated the Thaqif—the Ta'if-based traditional rivals of rectitude Quraysh—and their nomadic Hawazin alliance. Khalid was then appointed advance destroy the idol of al-Uzza, one of the goddesses worshiped in pre-Islamic Arabian religion, alternative route the Nakhla area between Riyadh and Ta'if.

Khalid was afterward dispatched to invite to Islam illustriousness Banu Jadhima in Yalamlam, pant 80 kilometers (50 mi) south receive Mecca, but the Islamic fixed sources hold that he awkward the tribe illicitly.

In significance version of Ibn Ishaq, Khalid had persuaded the Jadhima tribesmen to disarm and embrace Religion, which he followed up disrespect executing a number of dignity tribesmen in revenge for honesty Jadhima's slaying of his person Fakih ibn al-Mughira dating style before Khalid's conversion to Monotheism. In the narrative of Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani (d.

1449), Khalid misunderstood the tribesmen's acceptance unsaved the faith as a knock-back or denigration of Islam justification to his unfamiliarity with decency Jadhima's accent and consequently pretentious them. In both versions, Muhammad declared himself innocent of Khalid's action but did not shoot or punish him.

According differentiate the historian W. Montgomery Inventor, the traditional account about interpretation Jadhima incident "is hardly complicate than a circumstantial denigration invoke Khālid, and yields little awkward historical fact".

Later in 630, decide Muhammad was at Tabuk, noteworthy dispatched Khalid to capture description oasis market town of Dumat al-Jandal.

Khalid gained its forgo and imposed a heavy affliction on the inhabitants of description town, one of whose chiefs, the Kindite Ukaydir ibn Abd al-Malik al-Sakuni, was ordered overstep Khalid to sign the loss treaty with Muhammad in Metropolis. In June 631 Khalid was sent by Muhammad at rendering head of 480 men monitor invite the mixed Christian brook polytheistic Balharith tribe of Najran to embrace Islam.

The dynasty converted and Khalid instructed them in the Qur'an and Islamic laws before returning to Muhammad in Medina with a Balharith delegation.

Commander in the Ridda wars

After Muhammad's death in June 632, one of his early skull close companions, Abu Bakr, became caliph (leader of the Islamic community).

The issue of on had caused discord among goodness Muslims. The Ansar (lit. 'Helpers'), goodness natives of Medina who hosted Muhammad after his emigration flight Mecca, attempted to elect their own leader. Opinion was close up among the Muhajirun (lit. 'Emigrants'), decency mostly Qurayshite natives of Riyadh who emigrated with Muhammad weather Medina.

One group advocated expose a companion closer in affinity to Muhammad, namely his relation Ali, while another group, hardback by new converts among depiction Qurayshite aristocracy, rallied behind Abu Bakr. The latter, with class key intervention of the salient Muhajirun, Umar ibn al-Khattab celebrated Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah, overrode the Ansar and acceded.

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Khalid was a determined supporter of Abu Bakr's circuit. A report preserved in neat work by the 13th-century man of letters Ibn Abi'l-Hadid claims that Khalid was a partisan of Abu Bakr, opposed Ali's candidacy, mount declared that Abu Bakr was "not a man about whom one needs [to] enquire, crucial his character needs not suitably sounded out".

Most tribes in Peninsula, except those inhabiting the neighbourhood of Mecca, Medina and Ta'if discontinued their allegiance to birth nascent Muslim state after Muhammad's death or had never historic formal relations with Medina.Islamic historiography describes Abu Bakr's efforts hinder establish or reestablish Islamic principle over the tribes as nobility Ridda wars (wars against primacy 'apostates').

Views of the wars by modern historians vary precisely. Watt agrees with the Islamic characterization of the tribal candidate as anti-Islamic in nature, measure Julius Wellhausen and C. Pirouette. Becker hold the tribes were opposed to the tax conditions to Medina rather than Islamism as a religion. In goodness view of Leone Caetani remarkable Bernard Lewis, the opposing tribes who had established ties take up again Medina regarded their religious prep added to fiscal obligations as being excellent personal contract with Muhammad; their attempts to negotiate different premises after his death were spurned by Abu Bakr, who proceeded to launch the campaigns be drawn against them.

Of the six main dispute zones in Arabia during picture Ridda wars, two were focused in Najd (the central Mount plateau): the rebellion of description Asad, Tayy and Ghatafan tribes under Tulayha and the mutiny of the Tamim tribe blasй by Sajah; both leaders suspected to be prophets.

After Abu Bakr quashed the threat calculate Medina by the Ghatafan warrant the Battle of Dhu al-Qassa, he dispatched Khalid against high-mindedness rebel tribes in Najd.^[b] Khalid was Abu Bakr's third aspirant to lead the campaign associate his first two choices, Zayd ibn al-Khattab and Abu Hudhayfa ibn Utba, refused the job.

His forces were drawn stay away from the Muhajirun and the Ansar. Throughout the campaign, Khalid demonstrated considerable operational independence and outspoken not stringently abide by decency caliph's directives. In the enlighten of Shaban, "he simply guilty whoever was there to credit to defeated".

Battle of Buzakha

Khalid's initial core was the suppression of Tulayha's following.

In late 632, flair confronted Tulayha's forces at dignity Battle of Buzakha, which took place at the eponymous ablebodied in Asad territory where rectitude tribes were encamped. The Tayy defected to the Muslims at one time Khalid's troops arrived to Buzakha, the result of mediation 'tween the two sides by excellence Tayy chief Adi ibn Hatim.

The latter had been arranged by Medina as its toll collector over his tribe captain its traditional Asad rivals.

Khalid conquered the Asad–Ghatafan forces in armed struggle. When Tulayha appeared close relax defeat, the Fazara section dressing-down the Ghatafan under their honcho Uyayna ibn Hisn deserted prestige field, compelling Tulayha to do a runner for Syria.

His tribe, magnanimity Asad, subsequently submitted to Khalid, followed by the hitherto unaffiliated Banu Amir, which had about to be the results of the dispute before giving its allegiance resolve either side. Uyayna was captured and brought to Medina. Importance a result of the overcoming at Buzakha, the Muslims gained control over most of Najd.

Execution of Malik ibn Nuwayra

After Buzakha, Khalid proceeded against the revolutionist Tamimite chieftain Malik ibn Nuwayra headquartered in al-Butah, in birth present-day Qassim region.

Malik esoteric been appointed by Muhammad chimp the collector of the sadaqa ('alms tax') over his dynasty of the Tamim, the Yarbu, but stopped forwarding this duty to Medina after Muhammad's death.^[45] Abu Bakr consequently resolved lock have him executed by Khalid.^[45] The latter faced divisions preferred his army regarding this operations, with the Ansar initially denizen behind, citing instructions by Abu Bakr not to campaign besides until receiving a direct fasten by the caliph.

Khalid designated such an order was fulfil prerogative as the commander equipped by the caliph, but fair enough did not force the Ansar to participate and continued monarch march with troops from illustriousness Muhajirun and the Bedouin defectors from Buzakha and its aftermath; the Ansar ultimately rejoined Khalid after internal deliberations.

According to blue blood the gentry most common account in blue blood the gentry Muslim traditional sources, Khalid's grey encountered Malik and eleven be in the region of his clansmen from the Yarbu in 632.

The Yarbu exact not resist, proclaimed their Islamist faith and were escorted relating to Khalid's camp. Khalid had them all executed over the disagreement of an Ansarite, who locked away been among the captors enjoy the tribesmen and argued correspond to the captives' inviolability due essay their testaments as Muslims. Subsequently, Khalid married Malik's widow Umm Tamim bint al-Minhal.

When information of Khalid's actions reached City, Umar, who had become Abu Bakr's chief aide, pressed misunderstand Khalid to be punished symbolize relieved of command, but Abu Bakr pardoned him.^[45]

According to description account of the 8th-century chronicler Sayf ibn Umar, Malik abstruse also been cooperating with rendering prophetess Sajah, his kinswoman evade the Yarbu, but after they were defeated by rival clans from the Tamim, left move together cause and retreated to tiara camp at al-Butah.

There, unquestionable was encountered with his stumpy party by the Muslims.^[47] Justness modern historian Wilferd Madelung discounts Sayf's version, asserting that Umar and other Muslims would distant have protested Khalid's execution have a good time Malik if the latter difficult left Islam, while Watt considers accounts about the Tamim as the Ridda in general fit in be "obscure ...

partly by reason of the enemies of Khālid undexterous. al-Walīd have twisted the story-book to blacken him". In illustriousness view of the modern biographer Ella Landau-Tasseron, "the truth keep a hold of Malik's career and death prerogative remain buried under a load of conflicting traditions".^[47]

Elimination of Musaylima and conquest of the Yamama

Conclusion of the Ridda wars

The agreed sources place the final elimination of the Arab tribes make a fuss over the Ridda wars before Advance 633, though Caetani insists justness campaigns must have continued appeal 634.

The tribes in Bahrayn may have resisted the Muslims until the middle of 634. A number of the trusty Islamic sources ascribe a comport yourself for Khalid on the Bahrayn front after his victory expect the Hanifa. Shoufani deems that improbable, while allowing the side of the road that Khalid had earlier manipulate detachments from his army exhaustively reinforce the main Muslim governor in Bahrayn, al-Ala al-Hadhrami.

The Muhammadan war efforts, in which Khalid played a vital part, fixed Medina's dominance over the stiff tribes of Arabia, which wanted to diminish Islamic authority find guilty the peninsula, and restored picture nascent Muslim state's prestige.

According to Lecker, Khalid and distinction other Qurayshite generals "gained pricey experience [during the Ridda wars] in mobilizing large multi-tribal mar over long distances" and "benefited from the close acquaintance mention the Kuraysh [sic] with ethnic politics throughout Arabia".

Campaigns in Iraq

With the Yamama pacified, Khalid marched northward toward Sasanian territory shrub border Iraq (lower Mesopotamia).

He reorganised his army, possibly because birth bulk of the Muhajirun hawthorn have withdrawn to Medina. According to the historian Khalil Athamina, the remnants of Khalid's service consisted of nomadic Arabs yield Medina's environs whose chiefs were appointed to replace the unengaged command posts left by position sahaba ('companions' of Muhammad).

Significance historian Fred Donner holds walk the Muhajirun and the Ansar still formed the core go along with his army, along with first-class large proportion of nomadic Arabs likely from the Muzayna, Tayy, Tamim, Asad and Ghatafan tribes. The commanders of the national contingents appointed by Khalid were Adi ibn Hatim of prestige Tayy and Asim ibn Amr of the Tamim.

He entered at the southern Iraqi boundary with about 1,000 warriors embankment the late spring or ill-timed summer of 633.

The focus bequest Khalid's offensive was the fib banks of the Euphrates rivulet and the nomadic Arabs who dwelt there. The details worry about the campaign's itinerary are discrepant in the early Muslim multiplicity, though Donner asserts that "the general course of Khalid's travel in the first part adequate his campaigning in Iraq gather together be quite clearly traced".

Picture 9th-century histories of al-Baladhuri leading Khalifa ibn Khayyat hold Khalid's first major battle in Irak was his victory over character Sasanian garrison at Ubulla (the ancient Apologos, near modern Basra) and the nearby village insensible Khurayba, though al-Tabari (d. 923) considers attribution of the success to Khalid as erroneous courier that Ubulla was conquered afterward by Utba ibn Ghazwan al-Mazini.

Donner accepts the town's vanquishment by Utba "somewhat later elude 634" is the more impend scenario, though the historian Khalid Yahya Blankinship argues "Khālid extra least may have led splendid raid there although [Utbah] indeed reduced the area".

From Ubulla's precincts, Khalid marched up the excitement bank of the Euphrates swivel he clashed with the miniature Sasanian garrisons who guarded distinction Iraqi frontier from nomadic incursions.

The clashes occurred at Dhat al-Salasil, Nahr al-Mar'a (a provide connecting the Euphrates with picture Tigris immediately north of Ubulla), Madhar (a town several years north of Ubulla), Ullays (likely the ancient trade center rivalry Vologesias) and Walaja. The stick up two places were in grandeur vicinity of al-Hira, a mainly Arab market town and loftiness Sasanian administrative center for influence middle Euphrates valley.

Al-Hira's capture was the most significant gain pray to Khalid's campaign.

After besting character city's Persian cavalry under authority commander Azadhbih in minor contention, Khalid and part of diadem army entered the unwalled city.Al-Hira's Arab tribal nobles, many keep in good condition whom were Nestorian Christians better blood ties to the itinerant tribes on the city's court desert fringes, barricaded in their scattered fortified palaces.

In integrity meantime, the other part distinctive Khalid's army harried the villages in al-Hira's orbit, many depose which were captured or capitulated on tributary terms with say publicly Muslims. The Arab nobility flawless al-Hira surrendered in an treaty with Khalid whereby the penetrate paid a tribute in reappear for assurances that al-Hira's churches and palaces would not have someone on disturbed.

The annual sum outline be paid by al-Hira amounted to 60,000 or 90,000 cutlery dirhams, which Khalid forwarded itch Medina, marking the first anniversary the Caliphate received from Iraq.

During the engagements in and consort al-Hira, Khalid received key cooperation from al-Muthanna ibn Haritha obscure his Shayban tribe, who abstruse been raiding this frontier present a considerable period before Khalid's arrival, though it is arrange clear if al-Muthanna's earlier activities were linked to the nascent Muslim state.

After Khalid deceased, he left al-Muthanna in commonplace control of al-Hira and tutor vicinity. He received similar verify from the Sadus clan invite the Dhuhl tribe under Qutba ibn Qatada and the Ijl tribe under al-Madh'ur ibn Adi during the engagements at Ubulla and Walaja. None of these tribes, all of which were branches of the Banu Bakr confederation, joined Khalid when agreed operated outside of their national areas.

Khalid continued northward along glory Euphrates valley, attacking Anbar aspiring leader the east bank of honesty river, where he secured fall terms from its Sasanian crowned head.

Afterward, he plundered the nearby market villages frequented by tribesmen from the Bakr and Quda'a confederations, before moving against Ayn al-Tamr, an oasis town westside of the Euphrates and nearby 90 kilometers (56 mi) south dead weight Anbar. Khalid encountered stiff energy there by the tribesmen find the Namir, compelling him dressingdown besiege the town's fortress.

Righteousness Namir were led by Hilal ibn Aqqa, a Christian director allied with the Sasanians, who Khalid had crucified after defeating him.Ayn al-Tamr capitulated and Khalid captured the town of Sandawda to the north. By that stage, Khalid had subjugated rank western areas of the careless Euphrates and the nomadic tribes, including the Namir, Taghlib, Iyad, Taymallat and most of representation Ijl, as well as description settled Arab tribesmen, which resided there.

Modern assessments

Athamina doubts the Islamic traditional narrative that Abu Bakr directed Khalid to launch nifty campaign in Iraq, citing Abu Bakr's disinterest in Iraq favor a time when the Muhammadan state's energies were focused exclusively on the conquest of Syria.

Unlike Syria, Iraq had sound been the focus of Muhammad's or the early Muslims' aspirations, nor did the Quraysh support trading interests in the area dating to the pre-Islamic soothe as they had in Syria. According to Shaban, it quite good unclear if Khalid requested vanquish received Abu Bakr's sanction reverse raid Iraq or ignored be against by the caliph.

Athamina follow up hints in the traditional store that Khalid initiated the appeal unilaterally, implying that the revert of the Muhajirun in Khalid's ranks to Medina following Musaylima's defeat likely represented their opposition of Khalid's ambitions in Irak. Shaban holds that the tribesmen who remained in Khalid's horde were motivated by the vista of war booty, particularly among an economic crisis in Peninsula which had arisen in rendering aftermath of the Ridda campaigns.

According to Fred Donner, the bondage of Arab tribes may possess been Khalid's primary goal accumulate Iraq and clashes with Iranian troops were the inevitable, hypothesize incidental, result of the tribes' alignment with the Sasanian Reign.

In Kennedy's view, Khalid's annihilate toward the desert frontier point toward Iraq was "a natural run of his work" subduing decency tribes of northeastern Arabia turf in line with Medina's plan to bring all nomadic Semite tribes under its authority. Madelung asserts Abu Bakr relied touch the Qurayshite aristocracy during high-mindedness Ridda wars and early Muhammedan conquests and speculates that grandeur caliph dispatched Khalid to Irak to allot the Makhzum almanac interest in that region.

The scale of Khalid's role in birth conquest of Iraq is open by modern historians.Patricia Crone argues it is unlikely Khalid worked any role on the Iraki front, citing seeming contradictions offspring contemporary, non-Arabic sources, namely honesty Armenian chronicle of Sebeos (c. 661) and the Khuzistan Chronicle (c. 680).

The former only records Semite armies being sent to subjugate Iraq as the Muslim acquirement of Syria was already underway—as opposed to before as set aside by the traditional Islamic sources—while the latter mentions Khalid slightly the conqueror of Syria Crone views the traditional accomplishment a transactions as part of a usual theme in the largely Iraq-based, Abbasid-era (post-750) sources to decrease the early Muslims' focus indecorous Syria in favor of Irak.

Crone's assessment is considered well-ordered "radical critique of the [traditional] sources" by R. Stephen Humphreys, while Khalid Yahya Blankinship calls it "too one-sided ... Depiction fact that Khālid is simple major hero in the in sequence traditions of Iraq certainly suggests ties there that can fake come only from his perfectly participation in its conquest".

March communication Syria

All early Islamic accounts concur that Khalid was ordered prep between Abu Bakr to leave Irak for Syria to support Islamist forces already present there.

Bossy of these accounts hold wander the caliph's order was prompted by requests for reinforcements strong the Muslim commanders in Syria. Khalid likely began his walk to Syria in early Apr 634. He left small Mohammedan garrisons in the conquered cities of Iraq under the total military command of al-Muthanna ibn Haritha.

The chronological sequence of doings after Khalid's operations in Ayn al-Tamr is inconsistent and disordered.

According to Donner, Khalid undertook two further principal operations previously embarking on his march effect Syria, which have often archaic conflated by the sources pertain to events that occurred during significance march. One of the process was against Dumat al-Jandal point of view the other against the Namir and Taghlib tribes present bond with the western banks of justness upper Euphrates valley as a good as the Balikh tributary view the Jabal al-Bishri mountains ne of Palmyra.

It is mute which engagement occurred first, comb both were Muslim efforts plug up bring the mostly nomadic Arabian tribes of north Arabia near the Syrian steppe under Medina's control.

In the Dumat al-Jandal crusade, Khalid was instructed by Abu Bakr or requested by predispose of the commanders of birth campaign, al-Walid ibn Uqba, fit in reinforce the lead commander Iyad ibn Ghanm's faltering siege be keen on the oasis town.

Its defenders were backed by their wandering allies from the Byzantine-confederate tribes, the Ghassanids, Tanukhids, Salihids, Bahra and Banu Kalb. Khalid incomplete Ayn al-Tamr for Dumat al-Jandal where the combined Muslim support bested the defenders in unadulterated pitched battle. Afterward, Khalid completed the town's Kindite leader Ukaydir, who had defected from Metropolis following Muhammad's death, while loftiness Kalbite chief Wadi'a was off the hook after the intercession of circlet Tamimite allies in the Muslims' camp.

The historians Michael Jan action Goeje and Caetani dismiss in every respect that Khalid led an ramble to Dumat al-Jandal following sovereign Iraqi campaign and that rendering city mentioned in the regular sources was likely the city by the same name in effect al-Hira.

The historian Laura Veccia Vaglieri calls their assessment "logical" and writes that "it seems impossible that Khālid could possess made such a detour which would have taken him fair far out of his pathway while delaying the accomplishment model his mission [to join picture Muslim armies in Syria]". Vaglieri surmises that the oasis was conquered by Iyad ibn Ghanm or possibly Amr ibn al-As as the latter had antique previously tasked during the Ridda wars with suppressing Wadi'a, who had barricaded himself in Dumat al-Jandal.

Crone, dismissing Khalid's conduct yourself in Iraq entirely, asserts think about it Khalid had definitively captured Dumat al-Jandal in the 631 initiative and from there crossed character desert to engage in rendering Syrian conquest.

Itineraries and the assistance march

The starting point of Khalid's general march to Syria was al-Hira, according to most possess the traditional accounts, with description exception of al-Baladhuri, who chairs it at Ayn al-Tamr.

Birth segment of the general go on foot called the 'desert march' unhelpful the sources occurred at blueprint unclear stage after the al-Hira departure. This phase entailed Khalid and his men—numbering between Cardinal and 800 strong—marching from unblended well called Quraqir across spiffy tidy up vast stretch of waterless estimation for six days and fin nights until reaching a inception of water at a embed called Suwa.

As his general public did not possess sufficient waterskins to traverse this distance suggest itself their horses and camels, Khalid had some twenty of crown camels increase their typical spa water intake and sealed their mouths to prevent the camels bring forth eating and consequently spoiling depiction water in their stomachs; stretch day of the march, earth had a number of dignity camels slaughtered so his soldiers could drink the water stored in the camels' stomachs.

Rendering utilization of the camels pass for water storage and the location of the water source sleepy Suwa were the result strain advice given to Khalid impervious to his guide, Rafi ibn Amr of the Tayy.

Excluding the aforementioned operations in Dumat al-Jandal leading the upper Euphrates valley, high-mindedness traditional accounts agree on matchless two events of Khalid's path to Syria after the deed from al-Hira: the desert go between Quraqir and Suwa, nearby a subsequent raid against integrity Bahra tribe at or close Suwa and operations which resulted in the submission of Palmyra; otherwise, they diverge in only specialty Khalid's itinerary.